The Historical developments of radio
Radio all began by the German physicist, Henirich Hertz discovery of radio waves. He was the first to discover that you could transmit and receive electric waves wirelessly. At first, he believed that his work had no use but this turned out to be the foundation block of radio. Electromagnetic waves have the capability to travel types of data such as music and voice through the air. In 1895, the first transmission coded signals transmitted only about a mile in distance thanks to Guglielmo Marconi. This led him to the realisation that this may have a type of potential which he just hasn't recognized yet so he decided to offer this knowledge to the Italian Government who turned him
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down. This only lead him to go to the British government in order to experiment further with his founding. In 1897, signals only traveled at a greater distance until they reached up to 100km. This is when Marconi decided to open the first radio factory in Essex in 1899 which lead to him proving that the curve of the earth was not an obstacle. He did this by creating a 32 mile link between Britain and France. 5 years later, he made a connection with America as a telegram was sent between Massachusetts and New York specially created for the Navy. A year after that, he sent the first transAtlantic signal to Canada straight from Ireland. This is when truckloads filled with radios were shipped to Canada.
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Transmission and reception technology
A transmitter and reception were employed for the propagation and interception of radio waves. Radio waves are very important as it acts like a carrier of information-bearing signals. This is because information can be encoded directly on the wave by either interrupting its transmissions periodically or impressing on it by a process called modulation. Two of the most common types of modulation used in radio would be amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). If you compare the two, frequency modulation tends to provide a greater fidelity whilst minimising noise while amplitude modulation would be the more older method of broadcasting. Below are models of how their waves look like:
Both are analog transmission systems as they both process sounds into a continuously varying patterns filled with electrical signals resembling sound waves. In the most common type of format, radio would be used for direct transmissions of sounds such as voice and music, and pictures such as the ones we find on TV. They would be converted into electrical signals by either a microphone for sounds or a video camera for images, from there they are amplified and used to modulate a carrier wave which would be generated by an oscillator circuit in a transmitter. The modulated carrier is then also amplified which is applied to an antenna. The antenna converts the electrical signals to electromagnetic waves for radiation into space. There is some differences between AM and FM receivers. In an AM transmission, there is a constant frequency in the carrier which varies in amplitude (strength) depending on the sound present at the microphone. On the other hand, the FM carrier is constant in amplitude and varies in frequency. This means that FM receivers are inherently less sensitive to noise which is why FM is used in television sound systems.
I found this table which can be used to identify the difference between AM and FM radio.
DAB + RDS + DRM
DAB - Digital Audio Broadcasting
- This is the use of digital technology to transmit or receive across the radio spectrum.
- DAB radio was developed in the 1980s, and first came to the UK in 1995.
- It has since grown in popularity with approximately 35% of live radio listening now using DAB.
- DAB radio does not have the crackling problem that AM/FM stations have, however if the signal is weak it can still regularly cut out.
RDS - Radio Data System
- It is standard protocol for embedding small amounts of digital information in the standard FM radio broadcasts.
- This extra information can be picked up using FM radios with RDS-equipped tuners.
- It works by using a ‘subcarrier’ of 57 kHz.
- The information transmitted includes;
- Station Identification
- Time
- Programming information
DRM - Digital Radio Mondiale
- Set of digital audio broadcasting technologies designed to work over the bands currently used for analogue radio broadcasting including AM broadcasting
- Digital audio broadcasting technologies, designed to work over the bands currently used for analogue radio (AM + FM) broadcasting including AM broadcasting.
- It was designed as a high quality and cheap replacement for the more traditional analog broadcasting.
Programming
Programming in radio is what makes the public face of your station. Even though engineering, fundraising and governing of your station would be considered as some of your key elements when it comes to running the station as a whole,you still would have to consider what kind of music, news, public affairs, radio dramas and more that you would want to broadcast over the airwaves.
Organizing your programming
Radio's worldwide are notorious for their strong personalitied individuals who are managed into non-overlapping time slots. Creating such a programming is rather an inevitably challenging thing to do. To avoid personal conflicts that limited time slots and strong personalities ensure, it is very important to have a very transparent decision making process whilst setting clear expectations for the programmers. This can be done by having a strict programming policy as these rules become increasingly important. This is because different stations have come up with policies and strategies in order to organize their programming, train new programmers and arrange their schedules to maximise listenership. Here below is a programming policy and guideline which is set by 91.9 Fresh FM radio station.
The first commercial radio station appeared in 1920, BBC following 2 years later through a grant received from the British Government. After the British Broadcasting Company received this, a month later in November, the first radio broadcast was officially sent out. The BBC then arranged a regular scheduling which was able to reach the majority of the population in the UK especially when releasing their first edition of their own show called ''The Radio Times''. This show was available from September 1923 and just a year later, the BBC was established as the British Broadcasting Corporation by a Royal Charter who noticed their excellent work. If we are considering the first radio station launched, this would be called 2LO which was broadcaster from London in Marconi's house through a transmitter. Their shows would usually last an hour a day with a show from the director, Arthur Burrows reading the news to only around 30,000 people as they are the only ones who held a radio licence in the UK. The BBC radio station decided to launch other radio stations based around specific cities or regions in the UK instead of nationwide type of broadcasting. This was purposely done in order to target a specific group of people who would engage with the radio more effectively. They included shows such as 'the daily service', ' BBC dance orchestra' or even 'Children's hour' in their shows. Due to this, over 2 million people bought a radio licence by 1926. These radios were based in cities such as Birmingham, Bournemouth, Manchester, Glasgow and even Cardiff.
Regulation
According to Wikipedia, The ITU Radio Regulations regulates on law of nations scale radiocommunication services and the utilisation of radio frequencies. It is the supplementation to the Constitution and Convention of the International Telecommunication Union.
The Radio Regulations defines:
- the allocation of different frequency bands to different radio services;
- the mandatory technical parameters to be observed by radio stations, especially transmitters;
- procedures for the coordination (ensuring technical compatibility) and notification (formal recording and protection in the Master International Frequency Register) of frequency assignments made to radio stations by national governments;
- other procedures and operational provisions.
Short title: |
ITU Radio Regulations |
Long title: |
Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union |
Type: |
Treaty |
Legal Status: |
International Law |
Jurisdiction: |
international |
Abbreviation: |
RR |
Treaty countries: |
ca. 200 |
Announcement: |
December 22, 1992 |
Current version: |
''Geneva, 2015 (WRC-15)'' |
Piracy in Production and post-production technology
According to Ofcom, The operation of an unlicensed radio station, sometimes called ‘pirate radio,’ is illegal.Illegal broadcasters use equipment which may cause interference and have the potential to disrupt the communications of critical services like air traffic control. The transmitters are often homemade, poorly designed and obtained through the black market. They are frequently installed on high rise tower blocks. These installations are generally hazardous and may put the health and safety of the public at risk. The cost of removing these installations can run into thousands of pounds. There have been cases where those involved in illegal radio stations have been linked to serious crimes, including threats and assaults on enforcement officers, caretakers and residents. Raids on illegal radio stations have uncovered both drugs and weapons, including firearms.
Summary of offences
Anyone involved in illegal broadcasting is committing a criminal offence and could face up to two years’ imprisonment, an unlimited fine or both.You may be committing an offence if you know, or have reasonable cause to believe, that unauthorised broadcasts are being made, and you:
- keep a station/apparatus available for its use;
- allowing your premises to be used;
- advertise;
- promote;
- provide content;
- or otherwise enable the broadcasting, including managing or rendering any service that will facilitate the operation.
How we deal with illegal broadcasting
Ofcom has powers to investigate unlicensed broadcasting stations and prosecute those involved. We can enter and search premises and seize evidence, including any apparatus connected to the illegal broadcast installation. When we receive reports of harmful interference caused by illegal broadcast stations Ofcom will offer advice and assistance and, where appropriate, will investigate. For obvious reasons, we take complaints about interference to critical or emergency services particularly seriously.
Broadcast without breaking the law
Ofcom promotes the efficient use of radio spectrum and can issue various licences to broadcast lawfully.
For more than 10 years we have been issuing FM and AM community radio licences which enable stations to broadcast legally in a local area. Community radio stations can generate funding from advertising.
Over 230 community radio stations are broadcasting in locations across the UK. A station that has previously been broadcasting unlawfully is not necessarily prevented from obtaining a licence, in fact a number of former pirate radio stations are now licensed community radio stations. However, once someone is convicted of unlawfully broadcasting, that person is prohibited from holding a radio licence for five years and other licensees must do all they can to prevent such a person from being involved in activities relating to their service. Another option is broadcasting (or ‘webcasting’) on the internet which does not require a licence from Ofcom.
For more than 10 years we have been issuing FM and AM community radio licences which enable stations to broadcast legally in a local area. Community radio stations can generate funding from advertising.
Over 230 community radio stations are broadcasting in locations across the UK. A station that has previously been broadcasting unlawfully is not necessarily prevented from obtaining a licence, in fact a number of former pirate radio stations are now licensed community radio stations. However, once someone is convicted of unlawfully broadcasting, that person is prohibited from holding a radio licence for five years and other licensees must do all they can to prevent such a person from being involved in activities relating to their service. Another option is broadcasting (or ‘webcasting’) on the internet which does not require a licence from Ofcom.
Institutional contexts of radio
More regulations
Since we already mentioned OfCom, I will decide to talk about their rules and regulations. The Office of Communications is a type of regulation aimed at maintaining the responsibility for regulating not only telecommunications, but also TV and radio. Below is the OfCom Broadcasting Code which has to be followed by all users in the UK. One of the most common one of these codes would be the 9 o'clock watershed which states how all content inappropriate for child must be broadcasted after 9:00pm
Content Issues
In the event that radio shows, makers or hosts accomplish something which breaks the Broadcasting Code, which is set out by OFCOM, the issue will be examined. OFCOM will choose if move should be made or not. This typically results with a fine or, in outrageous cases, the radio broadcast having their permit denied or suspended. When it goes to the obligation of facilitating a radio show.
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Case Study - Talkradio fined £75,000 over Broadcasting Code breaches by ex-host George Galloway
George Galloway broke impartiality rules in three programmes in the space of five months in 2018. As a result, Broadcast regulator Ofcom has ordered Talkradio to pay a fine of £75,000. Two of the breaches were created over his comments on anti-Semitism in the Labour Party, while the third came after he shared ''bias and unbalanced'' views about the UK Government's response to the Salisbury spy poisoning.'
He was then sacked in June after posting an allegedly anti-semitic tweet. He had presented a Friday evening show on the News UK-owned station for three years. Months earlier, Galloway had described the Government as “blithering idiots” for its response to the Salisbury poisoning incident, shared his belief that Russia was not responsible, and “mocked and ridiculed” any listeners who challenged his stance.Talksport, the licensee for Talkradio, told Ofcom it should “exercise caution in sanctioning political speech”, especially as none of the material could be classed as hate speech or gravely offensive.
He was then sacked in June after posting an allegedly anti-semitic tweet. He had presented a Friday evening show on the News UK-owned station for three years. Months earlier, Galloway had described the Government as “blithering idiots” for its response to the Salisbury poisoning incident, shared his belief that Russia was not responsible, and “mocked and ridiculed” any listeners who challenged his stance.Talksport, the licensee for Talkradio, told Ofcom it should “exercise caution in sanctioning political speech”, especially as none of the material could be classed as hate speech or gravely offensive.
Ownership
Inside the UK, huge numbers of the more well known commercial business radio broadcasts are owned by the conglomerate Global Radio. Because of the Broadcasting Act of 1990, they have been permitted to purchase out or converge with numerous littler autonomous stations over the UK.
Some of the larger stations which are owned by Global Radio include:
Some of the larger stations which are owned by Global Radio include:
- Capital - (a network made up of 11 smaller regional stations)
- Heart - (a network made up of 12 smaller regional stations)
- Classic FM
- Smooth FM
- LBC
- Gold
- Juice FM
BBC radio stations
The entirety of the BBC radio broadcasts are possessed by the BBC. They are financed by the government grant and the TV licence. Due to this, they don't run adverts, in contrast to most of business radio broadcasts. The BBC runs 11 national stations, in addition to regional stations such as BBC Radio Cymru which is a Welsh speaking radio system. Furthermore, they also run a worldwide radio broadcast, which anyone is allowed to tune in to anyplace on the planet, called BBC World Service. The BBC World Service is the world's largest international broadcaster and broadcasts in 27 different dialects.
The entirety of the BBC radio broadcasts are possessed by the BBC. They are financed by the government grant and the TV licence. Due to this, they don't run adverts, in contrast to most of business radio broadcasts. The BBC runs 11 national stations, in addition to regional stations such as BBC Radio Cymru which is a Welsh speaking radio system. Furthermore, they also run a worldwide radio broadcast, which anyone is allowed to tune in to anyplace on the planet, called BBC World Service. The BBC World Service is the world's largest international broadcaster and broadcasts in 27 different dialects.
Employment
Different job roles available in the radio industry:
Radio presenter
This is the person who is the main voice of the radio station or programme. Often a radio station will have different presenters on at different times to do different shows. The specifics of the presenter's job will vary depending on what type of show or station they are working on. For example, doing live interviews, pre-recorded shows or just playing back-to-back music. Most radio presenters are self employed or on fixed term contracts.
This is the person who is the main voice of the radio station or programme. Often a radio station will have different presenters on at different times to do different shows. The specifics of the presenter's job will vary depending on what type of show or station they are working on. For example, doing live interviews, pre-recorded shows or just playing back-to-back music. Most radio presenters are self employed or on fixed term contracts.
Station manager
This is the person who oversees, and is in charge of, everything that is going on at the station. This involves a diverse range of jobs, for example, hiring new staff or training up pre-existing staff; delegating tasks and working out who is responsible for what; planning schedules for programmes, meetings etc…
This is the person who oversees, and is in charge of, everything that is going on at the station. This involves a diverse range of jobs, for example, hiring new staff or training up pre-existing staff; delegating tasks and working out who is responsible for what; planning schedules for programmes, meetings etc…
Radio producer
It is the job of the radio producer to create content. This means that they generate new ideas for shows that could be run, and carry out any research needed for it. It also involves managing the whole radio production process.
It is the job of the radio producer to create content. This means that they generate new ideas for shows that could be run, and carry out any research needed for it. It also involves managing the whole radio production process.
Radio broadcast assistant
Like the name may suggest, they offer support or assistance to radio producers and presenters within the studio. For example, this may involve helping with research for a show or doing admin to help the show run smoothly.
Like the name may suggest, they offer support or assistance to radio producers and presenters within the studio. For example, this may involve helping with research for a show or doing admin to help the show run smoothly.
Radio commercials producer
It is their role to produce and record radio advertisements. They may also produce promotional material for the radio, such as jingles.
It is their role to produce and record radio advertisements. They may also produce promotional material for the radio, such as jingles.
Maintenance engineer
Within a radio station, there is a lot of different technology being used. It's the job of the maintenance engineer to run routine checks and maintenance on the equipment, including installing any software or trouble-shooting when there is an issue. For example, if the radio station is receiving complaints about interference, it's the job of the engineer to figure out what is causing it and fix it. Also known as broadcasting engineer.
Within a radio station, there is a lot of different technology being used. It's the job of the maintenance engineer to run routine checks and maintenance on the equipment, including installing any software or trouble-shooting when there is an issue. For example, if the radio station is receiving complaints about interference, it's the job of the engineer to figure out what is causing it and fix it. Also known as broadcasting engineer.
Chief engineer
The chief engineer makes sure that the station has all the correct equipment that it needs to be able to broadcast. It also involves regularly checking that the equipment is working and performing any maintenance that is needed. Due to the more technical skills needed, the chief engineer can sometimes have special training or certifications.
The chief engineer makes sure that the station has all the correct equipment that it needs to be able to broadcast. It also involves regularly checking that the equipment is working and performing any maintenance that is needed. Due to the more technical skills needed, the chief engineer can sometimes have special training or certifications.
codes and conventions of radio genres
Genres
News, talk and sports
These stations feature news and conversation, rather than music. They typically announce local, regional, and national news items along with sports coverage. They also post regular traffic updates, one of the main reasons why audiences tune in. They also might mix local content with popular, syndicated radio shows. |
Speech programming
This is a segment of content which is intended for broadcast on the radio. Speech programming can either be a one-time production or part of a periodically recurring series of talks by a host or hostess. A single program is a series is called an episode internationally.
This is a segment of content which is intended for broadcast on the radio. Speech programming can either be a one-time production or part of a periodically recurring series of talks by a host or hostess. A single program is a series is called an episode internationally.
Commercials
Commercial radio stations obtain most of their cash by selling airtime in order to include radio advertisements. These types of advertisements are are the result of business or services providing valuable considerations through money, in exchange for the station airing their commercial or mentioning them live on air by 'spot commercials.' |
Music
Music radio is a radio arrangement where music is the principle communicated content. After TV replaced the olden era of radio's sensational substance, music groups became dominant in numerous nations internationally. Radio show and parody proceed, regularly on open radio.
Music radio is a radio arrangement where music is the principle communicated content. After TV replaced the olden era of radio's sensational substance, music groups became dominant in numerous nations internationally. Radio show and parody proceed, regularly on open radio.
Drama
Radio drama is a dramatised acoustic performance which includes no visual components as this type of drama purely depends on dialogue, music and sound effects to help the listeners imagine both the characters and story. This type of drama includes plays which are specifically written for radio, docudrama, dramatized work of fiction as well as plays which were originally written for theatre. This includes musical theatre and opera. |
Phone-ins
A phone-in or call-in is a programme format in which viewers or listeners are invited to air their live comments by telephone, usually in respect of a specific topic selected for discussion on the day.
A phone-in or call-in is a programme format in which viewers or listeners are invited to air their live comments by telephone, usually in respect of a specific topic selected for discussion on the day.
Commentary
An commentary analysis is an extra sound track, generally computerized, comprising of a talk or remarks by at least one speakers, that plays continuously with a video. Commentaries can be not serious or entertaining in nature, and can include data which in any case would not be revealed to crowd individuals. |
Codes and conventions
Sound effects
A radio sound effect is an artificially created or enchanced sound effect. They are normally created with foley. Sound effects are great methods of editing music as it can be a transition from song to song, or even during a news announcement.
A radio sound effect is an artificially created or enchanced sound effect. They are normally created with foley. Sound effects are great methods of editing music as it can be a transition from song to song, or even during a news announcement.
Acoustic
A radio acoustic sound system or in abbreviation, [RASS] happens to be a system used to measure the atmospheric lapse rate. This is done by using back scattering of radio waves from an acoustic wave front to measure the speed of sound at various heights above the ground. An example of one of the most known acoustic radios was hosted by Bruce Springsteen in 1974.
A radio acoustic sound system or in abbreviation, [RASS] happens to be a system used to measure the atmospheric lapse rate. This is done by using back scattering of radio waves from an acoustic wave front to measure the speed of sound at various heights above the ground. An example of one of the most known acoustic radios was hosted by Bruce Springsteen in 1974.
Atmosphere
A radio atmospheric signal, sferic or sometimes even spelled as ''spheric''. This happens to be a broadband electromagnetic impulse which occurs as a result of a natural atmospheric lightning discharges. On a time-domain plot, a radio atmospheric signal may appear as a single high-amplitude spike in the time-domain data. |
Spot effect
According to wiktionary, the sport effect (plural spot effects) is a sound effect representing a single discrete event, such as breaking glass, as opposed to ongoing background sounds.
According to wiktionary, the sport effect (plural spot effects) is a sound effect representing a single discrete event, such as breaking glass, as opposed to ongoing background sounds.
White noise
When processing signals, white noise happens to be a random signal which has equal intensity at different frequencies. This results in giving it a constant power spectral density. This type of static sound is a combination of natural electromagnetic atmospheric noise created by electrical processes. |
Noise pollution
This is also known as an environmental noise or sound pollution which is the propagation of noise caused by a range of activity which impacts both human and animal life to a harmful degree. The sources of outdoor noise caused by radio would mainly be caused by machines, transport and propagation systems. If there is poor urban planning, this may increase the risk of noise pollution especially in residential areas. |
Editing
In radio, editing is a modification typically truncated which is intended to make a song more suitable for airplay purposes. This can be adjusted length wise, profanity, subject matter, instrumentation or form.
In radio, editing is a modification typically truncated which is intended to make a song more suitable for airplay purposes. This can be adjusted length wise, profanity, subject matter, instrumentation or form.
Processing
According to wikipedia, Audio signal processing happens to be a sub field of signal processing that is concerned with the electronic manipulation of audio signals. Audio signals are electronic representations of sound waves - longitudinal waves which travel through air consisting of compression and rarefactions. |
Content style
Syndicated content is that licensed content that you get from the other radio stations, podcasters, or podcasters network. A completely produced content is ready to air all the time and you can simply get it with the authorization of its broadcast on your radio station from the above-mentioned sources. |
narrative structures
Types of radio journalism
What is Broadcasting Journalism?
Broadcasting journalism is a type of news reporting presented to the public electronically or by radio instead of being published in newspapers. Media in broadcast journalism includes television, radio, and the Internet. Broadcast journalism is meant to be dispersed more quickly than older forms of journalism, including print media, and is meant to be more accessible. Radio and television broadcasts are designed to get the news out to a wide variety of people in language that is much less formal than traditional print media.
Broadcasting journalism is a type of news reporting presented to the public electronically or by radio instead of being published in newspapers. Media in broadcast journalism includes television, radio, and the Internet. Broadcast journalism is meant to be dispersed more quickly than older forms of journalism, including print media, and is meant to be more accessible. Radio and television broadcasts are designed to get the news out to a wide variety of people in language that is much less formal than traditional print media.
Narrative journalism
Narrative journalism is an immersive style of storytelling, used to captivate readers by drawing them into a story with greater detail than is found in traditional news stories. In order to draw the audience into the story, the author must use well research and accurate information at all times. Usually this style of storytelling contains more detail than the traditional method of storytelling. It is a popular format for magazines such as The New Yorker and can be difficult to define and write.
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Immersion journalism
Immersion journalism is a style of journalism which is very similar to gonzo journalism. In this style, the journalists immerse themselves in a situation (that they are reporting on) with the people that are involved. This means that the reporter would get to know the people involved. The final product likes to focus more on the experience gained from it and the one around the author. This type of journalism tends to break away from the neutral objectivity of traditional journalism, and follow its path.
Immersion journalism is a style of journalism which is very similar to gonzo journalism. In this style, the journalists immerse themselves in a situation (that they are reporting on) with the people that are involved. This means that the reporter would get to know the people involved. The final product likes to focus more on the experience gained from it and the one around the author. This type of journalism tends to break away from the neutral objectivity of traditional journalism, and follow its path.
Gonzo journalism
Similar to Immersion journalism, this type of journalism tends to break away from the neutral objectivity of traditional journalism. The thing with this type of journalism is that in this style there is no types of claims of objectivity. It tends to include the reporter or journalist as part of the story. As a result, it tends to be most commonly written in first person narrative where the author tends to be the protagonist.
Similar to Immersion journalism, this type of journalism tends to break away from the neutral objectivity of traditional journalism. The thing with this type of journalism is that in this style there is no types of claims of objectivity. It tends to include the reporter or journalist as part of the story. As a result, it tends to be most commonly written in first person narrative where the author tends to be the protagonist.
Types of radio interviews
What is an interview?
According to wikipedia. ''an interview is essentially a structured conversation where one participant asks questions, and the other provides answers. In common parlance, the word "interview" refers to a one-on-one conversation between an interviewer and an interviewee. The interviewer asks questions to which the interviewee responds, usually so information is offered by the interviewee to interviewer -- and that information may be used or provided to other audiences, whether in real time or later.''
According to wikipedia. ''an interview is essentially a structured conversation where one participant asks questions, and the other provides answers. In common parlance, the word "interview" refers to a one-on-one conversation between an interviewer and an interviewee. The interviewer asks questions to which the interviewee responds, usually so information is offered by the interviewee to interviewer -- and that information may be used or provided to other audiences, whether in real time or later.''
Open ended questions
Open ended questions gives the interviewee a lot of different options when it comes to answering a question asked by the interviewer. These types of questions are usually asked when the question itself tends to be vague. It is a great way of putting both parties at ease as they both have the opportunity to speak more freely as they have the freedom to use their own vocabulary, attitudes, beliefs and values as this tends to be a more personal response. The advantage of these type of questions is the fact that answers can have a lot more detail in them but the thing is sometimes the detail can be irrelevant. If that is the case, the whole conversation can become rather confusing. If it gets to this stage, the interviewer may risk losing track of the interview or would not receive the correct/useful information needed, resulting in a lot of wasted time.
Open ended questions gives the interviewee a lot of different options when it comes to answering a question asked by the interviewer. These types of questions are usually asked when the question itself tends to be vague. It is a great way of putting both parties at ease as they both have the opportunity to speak more freely as they have the freedom to use their own vocabulary, attitudes, beliefs and values as this tends to be a more personal response. The advantage of these type of questions is the fact that answers can have a lot more detail in them but the thing is sometimes the detail can be irrelevant. If that is the case, the whole conversation can become rather confusing. If it gets to this stage, the interviewer may risk losing track of the interview or would not receive the correct/useful information needed, resulting in a lot of wasted time.
Close ended questions
Close ended questions tend to limit the interviewee options. An example of how they may do this is by asking a yes or no question. The benefits of this type of questions would be the amount of time it saves. They are also very straight forward and aim straight towards the point. They also can cover a lot of different topics. The only issue with these type of questions would be how they could fail to get all the detailed information or even completely miss the main point for the interview.
Close ended questions tend to limit the interviewee options. An example of how they may do this is by asking a yes or no question. The benefits of this type of questions would be the amount of time it saves. They are also very straight forward and aim straight towards the point. They also can cover a lot of different topics. The only issue with these type of questions would be how they could fail to get all the detailed information or even completely miss the main point for the interview.
Bipolar interview questions
Bipolar questions is also pretty closed. They limit the interviewee's response even further, often resulting in a simple 'yes', 'no' or an agreement or disagreement with the question asked. The advantage of this would be how they allow the interviewer to get more details on a particular questions, like a sort of follow up question. To add onto this, they can be used to expand upon a specfic point or even clarify what the interviewee said.
Bipolar questions is also pretty closed. They limit the interviewee's response even further, often resulting in a simple 'yes', 'no' or an agreement or disagreement with the question asked. The advantage of this would be how they allow the interviewer to get more details on a particular questions, like a sort of follow up question. To add onto this, they can be used to expand upon a specfic point or even clarify what the interviewee said.
Open ended and close ended interviews
Open ended interviews would be an interview which is ongoing. An example for this would be a series of interviews about a filmmaker or a political campaign. On the other hand, close ended interviews is where you interview a person just one time about one particular event.
Open ended interviews would be an interview which is ongoing. An example for this would be a series of interviews about a filmmaker or a political campaign. On the other hand, close ended interviews is where you interview a person just one time about one particular event.
Continuity announcing
According to Wikipedia, “In broadcasting, 'continuity' is announcements, messages and graphics played by the broadcaster (radio station) between specific programmes”. This would mean that they typically include programme schedules, announcements of the next upcoming programmes, different trailers or descriptions of other programmes or even radio jingles. Due to the increase of most stations just playing music, fewer and fewer stations are still using continuity announcers.
According to Wikipedia, “In broadcasting, 'continuity' is announcements, messages and graphics played by the broadcaster (radio station) between specific programmes”. This would mean that they typically include programme schedules, announcements of the next upcoming programmes, different trailers or descriptions of other programmes or even radio jingles. Due to the increase of most stations just playing music, fewer and fewer stations are still using continuity announcers.
Multi strand narratives
Real and fiction time
Real time means that events within the media (for example, radio dramas) are shown or played out at the same rate at which the characters are experiencing them. An example of this would be if the radio drama is 30 minutes long, then the plot will cover 30 minutes in the character's life. Fictional time, like the name suggests, is the opposite of real time. This is where events in the radio drama (or other from of media) do not match with real time. An example of this is when the radio play lasts 30 minutes, however in the story years have passed. |
Cliffhanger
A cliffhanger is a plot device in fiction which features the major last event at the end of either a film, episode or chapter. This is where the audience or listener is left with suspense, increasing their eager to know what happens next. We see cliffhangers most commonly as a way of engaging the audience and helping to ensure that they tune into the next episode. Examples of this would include having a big reveal, or a secret leaked but not knowing who the secret is about.
A cliffhanger is a plot device in fiction which features the major last event at the end of either a film, episode or chapter. This is where the audience or listener is left with suspense, increasing their eager to know what happens next. We see cliffhangers most commonly as a way of engaging the audience and helping to ensure that they tune into the next episode. Examples of this would include having a big reveal, or a secret leaked but not knowing who the secret is about.
Voiceovers
Voiceover is an off-camera or off-stage commentary. This production technique involves a voice which is not part of the narrative. It is most commonly used in radio and is most commonly read from a script. Sometimes, it can be the intentional voice of another character in the radio drama, however it can also be the main character's internal thoughts. It also could be an outside voice which is often voiced by a separate voice actor or outside narrator. |
Types of radio drama
Ongoing plays
Ongoing plays is an ongoing series of a radio shows.
Ongoing plays is an ongoing series of a radio shows.
Series
A series happens to be a set of programmes or broadcasts which have a very particular kind of title. They tend to follow on from one another and commonly come in chronological orders so the audience does not lose track of where they may have previously left off.
A series happens to be a set of programmes or broadcasts which have a very particular kind of title. They tend to follow on from one another and commonly come in chronological orders so the audience does not lose track of where they may have previously left off.
Single Plays
Single plays are single or one-off plays. These type of dramas are most commonly aired on radio stations such as BBC Radio 4. This is because it is the main talking and drama show in the UK.
Single plays are single or one-off plays. These type of dramas are most commonly aired on radio stations such as BBC Radio 4. This is because it is the main talking and drama show in the UK.
Alternative narrative structures
Non-Linear
A non-linear narrative happens to be a type of dis-jointed narrative in a piece of media text. This can be where the narrative is either not arranged in chronological order, or does not follow the direct timeline of events. An example of this would be a radio drama or plays like parallel plot lines. This is where two or more characters are doing different things at the same point in time. |
Parallel plot lines
This is when the author of the radio drama or other piece of media weaves two or more dramatic or important plots together. The separate plot lines are normally linked by a common character or a similar theme.
This is when the author of the radio drama or other piece of media weaves two or more dramatic or important plots together. The separate plot lines are normally linked by a common character or a similar theme.
Impressionistic
According to English literature, The Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad “is often regarded as one of the prime examples of Impressionistic literature. Marlow's thoughts and emotions as he journeys up the Congo River and his encounter with Kurtz” Throughout the book, the audience is left to create their own interpretation. This is because the narrative of the writing tends to be intentionally ambiguous, placing more responsibility on the audience to form his/her own interpretations or conclusions about a specific event instead of relying on the narrator. |
Non-narrative
According to Wikipedia, “Non-narrative film is an aesthetic (style) of film that does not narrate, or relate to an event, whether real or imaginary". It is usually a form of art film or experimental film, not made for mass entertainment.” An example of this would be Man with a Movie Camera (1929) This silent documentary film was an experiment with no story and no actors. It was directed by Soviet-Russian director Dziga Vertov and edited by his wife, Elizaveta Svilova.
According to Wikipedia, “Non-narrative film is an aesthetic (style) of film that does not narrate, or relate to an event, whether real or imaginary". It is usually a form of art film or experimental film, not made for mass entertainment.” An example of this would be Man with a Movie Camera (1929) This silent documentary film was an experiment with no story and no actors. It was directed by Soviet-Russian director Dziga Vertov and edited by his wife, Elizaveta Svilova.
Main theories of ideology and audience
Ideology and representation
Ideology
Just like other types of media like TV, films and newspapers, the radio can be used as a form of help, share or broadcast a certain set of beliefs or an ideology to its audience. According to yourdictionary, ''Ideology is a set of shared beliefs within a group, such as a nation or social class. This body of beliefs influence the way individuals think, act, and view the world.''
Just like other types of media like TV, films and newspapers, the radio can be used as a form of help, share or broadcast a certain set of beliefs or an ideology to its audience. According to yourdictionary, ''Ideology is a set of shared beliefs within a group, such as a nation or social class. This body of beliefs influence the way individuals think, act, and view the world.''
Objectivity
Objectivity is very important to honest journalism as the aim is to assist the audience or listener create and make up their own mindset and ideas about a current issue, story or event. This can be done by just providing the relevant facts without holding any type of bias or interpretations as well as letting the audience receive them in their own individual ways. |
Impartiality
According to BBC Academy, “The BBC’s Charter and Agreement requires BBC journalism to be impartial. The way the BBC does this differentiates it from other news sources and is part of the contract with audiences. BBC editors talk about viewing a story from all angles.” This means to treat everybody fairly which can be done by not taking sides, or holding a bias/prejudice either for or against anybody when reporting a news story. This is a very important trait within both the media and radio.
According to BBC Academy, “The BBC’s Charter and Agreement requires BBC journalism to be impartial. The way the BBC does this differentiates it from other news sources and is part of the contract with audiences. BBC editors talk about viewing a story from all angles.” This means to treat everybody fairly which can be done by not taking sides, or holding a bias/prejudice either for or against anybody when reporting a news story. This is a very important trait within both the media and radio.
Censorship and self-censorship
When considering all broadcasted media in the UK, Ofcom has the huge responsibility for regulating all the content released. They now use their powers set by the Communications Act 2003 (The Act itself is included below this). The British government requires that all types of broadcasted media (e.g, radio, TV, films) follow the Ofcom code created which covers general accepting standards of taste and decency. |
Communications Act 2003
“An Act to confer functions on the Office of Communications; to make provision about the regulation of the provision of electronic communications networks and services and of the use of the electro-magnetic spectrum; to make provision about the regulation of broadcasting and of the provision of television and radio services.” - Chapter 21, Communications Act 2003. |
Representation
According to an 2018 Ofcom report, one of the best ways to reflect on and provide relevant content for your whole audience is to increase diversity and representation in the workplace. This way, programmes cover a large and diverse audience. “Promoting greater diversity within broadcasting is a priority for Ofcom, and we are working with the industry and government to make progress.” |
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Audience passive and active responses:
Audience profiling
Audience profiles is a way for companies to determine their ideal target market of consumers. It looks at the demographic and psychographic profile of their target group.
Psychographic group
Psychographic group
- Divides the market into groups based on social class, lifestyle and personality characteristics.
- It is based on the assumption that the types of products and brands an individual purchases will reflect that person's characteristics and patterns of living.
- Measurable characteristics of media consumers such as age, gender, race, education and income level.
- The different groups are broken into bands, depending on their jobs and lifestyle etc…
Stuart Hall's Reception Theory
There are three ways that we interpret and respond to a piece of media -
There are three ways that we interpret and respond to a piece of media -
- Dominant (or preferred) reading
- The audience fully accepts the preferred reading, thus reading the radio production the way the producer intended, making the code natural and transparent.
- For example, they correctly decode the radio programme or show and enjoy it, therefore becoming fans who tune in regularly.
- Negotiated reading
- The audience partly believes the code and broadly accepts the preferred reading, but they will interpret them in a way which reflects their own position, experiences and interests.
- For example, the audience partially agree with the piece of media. They are fans of the radio production, however they are not what you would call die hard fans.
- Opposition reading
- The listener's social position is placed in an oppositional relation to the dominant code, thus they reject the reading.
- For example, they are not fans of the radio station or programme and therefore do not regularly (or at all) tune in.
Blumler & Katz: Uses and Gratifications Theory
In 1970, a theory was created which stated how there are four main reasons why audience members consume certain texts produced by the media in order to:
As a result, the Uses and Gratifications theory is important when it comes to determining which audience member applies to what specific category in Radio. besides the four reasons stated above, there is another four main sections to consider: Surveillance, identification, diversion and entertainment. Surveillance is where the audience gain an educational value out of the film or television programme that they have just viewed. Identification is when the audience align themselves with the main protagonist and relate to them in a way that they wish to see them make it to the end of the narrative. Diversion is when it allows the audience to escape from the reality that they live in – this is the most common gratification of the four - sometimes referred to as 'escapism'. Finally, the entertainment element is when they just view the film for pure entertainment, acting as a passive audience member as they watch the film.
- Identify
- Educate
- Entertain
- Interact
As a result, the Uses and Gratifications theory is important when it comes to determining which audience member applies to what specific category in Radio. besides the four reasons stated above, there is another four main sections to consider: Surveillance, identification, diversion and entertainment. Surveillance is where the audience gain an educational value out of the film or television programme that they have just viewed. Identification is when the audience align themselves with the main protagonist and relate to them in a way that they wish to see them make it to the end of the narrative. Diversion is when it allows the audience to escape from the reality that they live in – this is the most common gratification of the four - sometimes referred to as 'escapism'. Finally, the entertainment element is when they just view the film for pure entertainment, acting as a passive audience member as they watch the film.